Abstract

This study examines how disruptive classroom environments are associated with Grade 8 students’ science achievement across TIMSS 2023 participating countries, with a particular focus on classroom management and learning environment conditions in science education. Disruptions analyzed include student inattentiveness, excessive noise, delayed settling time, student interruptions, rule violations, and peer distractions. The study utilized four major analyses: Cluster analysis, One-way and Two-way ANOVA, and Multiple linear regression analysis. The results from cluster analysis showed countries belonging in high levels of disruption report frequent rule violations, peer distractions, longer settling time, frequent student interruptions, and excessive classroom noise, while countries belonging in low levels of disruption report more orderly classrooms. One-way and two-way ANOVA results showed that while disruption type alone did not significantly affect achievement, overall disruption level had a strong effect, with students in low-disruption settings performing better, particularly in Earth Science. Multiple linear regression identified peer distractions as the strongest negative predictor of achievement across all domains. Other disruption variables showed mixed effects, with some positively associated but not statistically significant. The findings suggest that the overall level of classroom disruption is more strongly associated with science achievement than any single disruption type. The study highlights the need for effective classroom management strategies and policy measures to reduce disruptive environments and improve student engagement and science performance internationally.

Keywords

References

• Aelterman, N., Vansteenkiste, M., Soenens, B., & Haerens, L. (2019). Correlates of students’ internalization and defiance of classroom rules: A self-determination theory perspective. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 89(1), 22-40. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12213
• Abrigo, M. R. M., Edillon, R. R., & Francisco, M. A. R. (2024). School bullying contributes to lower PISA achievement among Filipino students: Analysis of the 2022 data [No. 2024-45.]. Philippine Institute for Development Studies Discussion Paper Series. https://doi.org/10.62986/dp2024.45
• Ajiboye, S. K., Adebayo, D. O., & Abubakar, S. (2020). Teachers’ assessment of inattentive classroom behavior among primary school students in Ilorin City, Kwara State, Nigeria. Mimbar Sekolah Dasar, 7(2), 172-183. https://doi.org/10.17509/mimbar-sd.v7i2.24101
• Asare, B., Welcome, N. B., & Arthur, Y. D. (2024). Investigating the impact of classroom management, teacher quality, and mathematics interest on mathematics achievement. Journal of Pedagogical Sociology and Psychology, 6(2), 30–46. https://doi.org/10.33902/jpsp.202426232
• Astolfi, A., Pavese, L., Pellerey, F., & Brambilla, C. (2019). Influence of classroom acoustics on noise disturbance and well-being in children. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2736. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02736
• Balli, S. J. (2023). Effective classroom routines and instructional time management in secondary education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 125, 104010. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2023.104010
• Bal-Taştan, Davoudi, S.M., Masalimova, A., Bersanov, A., Kurbanov, R., Boiarchuk, A., & Pavlushin, A. (2018). The impacts of teacher's efficacy and motivation on student's academic achievement in science education among secondary and high school students. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 14(6), 2353-2366. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/89579
• Betache, A. B., Sumena, A. R., Maghamil, C. W., & Ejercito, F. J. (2025). Determinants of science achievement: A quantitative study of grade 10 learners’ academic performance and its associated factors. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, 9(07), 4458-4484. https://doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.907000361
• Bibon, M. B. (2022). Teachers’ instructional practices and learners’ academic achievement in science. Contemporary Mathematics and Science Education, 3(1), ep22007. https://doi.org/10.30935/conmaths/11816
• Buchs, C., & Butera, F. (2004). Socio-cognitive conflict and the role of student interaction in learning. Nouvelle Revue de Psychologie Sociale, 3, 80–87. https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:27550
• Burns, E. C., Martin, A. J., Collie, R. J., & Mainhard, T. (2021). Perceived classroom disruption undermines the positive educational effects of perceived need-supportive teaching in science. Learning and Instruction, 75, 101498. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2021.101498
• Bradbury, N. A. (2023). Do I have your attention?: Attention and engagement: What are they, and do I want them? Advances in Physiology Education, 47, 318-325. https://doi.org/10.1152/advan.00022.2023
• Camarillo, M. E., Sangalang, G. D., Pantinople, H. L., & Batoctoy, M. O. (2021). Assessment of noise pollution exposure to elementary students: A case in Argao, Cebu, Philippines. International Journal of Sciences: Basic and Applied Research, 60(4), 331-344. Rhttps://www.gssrr.org/JournalOfBasicAndApplied/article/view/13353
• Coşkun, B., & Karadağ, E. (2023). The effect of student and school characteristics on TIMSS 2015 science and mathematics achievement: The case of Türkiye. Journal of Pedagogical Research, 7(1), 203-227. https://doi.org/10.33902/JPR.202318875
• Courtney, M. B. (2021). Exploratory data analysis in schools: A logic model to guide implementation. International Journal of Education Policy and Leadership, 17(4), 14. https://doi.org/10.22230/ijepl.2021v17n4a1041
• Figueroa Valencia, K. D. C., Macas Caiminagua, M. A., & Espinoza Freire, E. E. (2020). Disruptive behavior in regular classrooms of machala: case study. Revista Metropolitana De Ciencias Aplicadas, 3(2), 225-232. https://doi.org/10.62452/z970m423
• Deng, L., Zhou, Y., & Hu, Q. (2022). Off-task social media multitasking during class: determining factors and mediating mechanism. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 19(1), 14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-022-00321-1
• Dulay, S. (2023). What makes an effective teacher? Unveiling teachers’ perceptions. Journal of Pedagogical Sociology and Psychology, 5(3), 112–130. https://doi.org/10.33902/jpsp.202323606
• Emmer, E. T., & Sabornie, E. J. (2015). Handbook of classroom management (2nd ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315750579
• Entress, C., & Wagner, A. (2014). Beyond “Hitting the Books”: Teaching science students strategies for studying independently. The Science Teacher, 81(4), 27. https://doi.org/10.2505/4/tst14_081_04_27
• Filippou, D., Buchs, C., Quiamzade, A., & Pulfrey, C. (2022). Understanding motivation for implementing cooperative learning methods: a value-based approach. Social Psychology of Education: An International Journal, 25(1), 169–208. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-021-09666-3
• Finn, J. D., Fish, R. M., & Scott, L. A. (2021). Educational sequelae of high school misbehavior. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 74, 101245.
• Gage, N. A., Scott, T., Hirn, R. G., & MacSuga-Gage, A. S. (2018). The relationship between teachers’ implementation of classroom management practices and student behavior in elementary school. Behavioral Disorders, 43(2), 302–314. https://doi.org/10.1177/0198742917714809
• Gallen, C. L., Schaerlaeken, S., Younger, J. W., Project iLEAD Consortium, Anguera, J. A., & Gazzaley, A. (2023). Contribution of sustained attention abilities to real-world academic skills in children. Scientific Reports, 13(1), 2673. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-29427-w
• Gheller, F., Spicciarelli, G., Scimemi, P., & Arfe, B. (2024). The effects of noise on children’s cognitive performance: A systematic review. Environment and Behavior, 55(8-10), 698-734. https://doi.org/10.1177/00139165241245823
• Gillies, R. (2023). Using cooperative learning to enhance students' learning and engagement during inquiry-based science. Education Sciences, 13(12), 1242. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13121242
• Godwin, K. E., Almeda, M. V., Seltman, H., Kai, S., Skerbetz, M. D., Baker, R. S., & Fisher, A. V. (2016). Off-task behavior in elementary school children. Learning and Instruction, 44, 128–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.04.003
• Gruta, J., Espiritu, M., & Oreta, M., & Segui, G. (2025). Impacts of common distractions to the academic performance of selected students in a private school in Gumaca, Quezon. Psychology and Education: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 39, 945-951. http://dx.doi.org/10.70838/pemj.390706
• Gulboy, E., Denizli-Gulboy, H., & Rakap, S. (2025). Good behavior game: Effects on disruptive behaviors of students with and without special educational needs in an inclusive setting. Behavioral Sciences, 15(2), 177. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15020177
• Guzelergene, E. S., Cinar, D. B., & Nayir, F. (2025). Managing multicultural classrooms: Characteristics of culturally responsive classroom management. Journal of Pedagogical Sociology and Psychology, 7(4), 259–277. https://doi.org/10.33902/jpsp.202533262
• Halitoglu, M., & Uzunboylu, Z. O. (2025). Teachers’ perspectives on unwanted student behaviors before, during, and after the pandemic: A classroom management evaluation. International Journal of Innovative Research in Education, 12(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.18844/ijire.v12i1.9820
• Herman, K. C., Reinke, W. M., Dong, N., & Bradshaw, C. P. (2022). Can effective classroom behavior management increase student achievement in middle school? Findings from a group randomized trial. Journal of Educational Psychology, 114(1), 144-160. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000641
• Ingram, J., & Elliott, V. (2016). A critical analysis of the role of wait time in classroom interactions and the effects on student and teacher interactional behaviours. Cambridge Journal of Education, 46(1), 37–53. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305764X.2015.1009365
• International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement [IEA]. (2023). TIMSS 2023 Grade 8 student questionnaire (Integrated Science). TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center.
• Irambona, A., & Syomwene, A. (2023). The impact of classroom context on learners' achievement in the post-basic school English curriculum in Burundi. Psychology, Evaluation, and Technology in Educational Research, 6(1), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.33292/petier.v6i1.177
• Kaya, E., Erduran, S., & Okan, B. (2024). Nature of science and domain-specificity: investigating the coverage of nature of science in physics, chemistry and biology curricula across grade levels. International Journal of Science Education, 47(5), 697–727. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2024.2348822
• Kennedy, A. M., & Haydon, T. (2021). Forming and sustaining high-quality student-teacher relationships to reduce minor behavioral incidents. Intervention in School And Clinic, 56(3), 141–147. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053451220942197
• Klatte, M., Bergström, K., & Lachmann, T. (2013). Does noise affect learning? A short review on noise effects on cognitive performance in children. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 578. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00578
• Korpershoek, H., Harms, T., de Boer, H., van Kuijk, M., & Doolaard, S. (2016). A meta-analysis of the effects of classroom management strategies and classroom management programs on students’ academic, behavioral, emotional, and motivational outcomes. Review of Educational Research, 86(3), 643–680. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315626799
• Kraft, M. A., & Monti-Nussbaum, M. (2021). The big problem with little interruptions to classroom learning. American Educational Research Association (AERA) Open, 7. https://doi.org/10.1177/23328584211028856
• Lay, Y. F. & Ng, K. T. (2021). Correlates of science classroom teaching with Southeast Asian and East Asian eighth graders' science achievement in TIMSS 2015. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 79(3), 425–450. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.425
• Leek, J., Rojek, M., Dobińska, G., & Kosiorek, M. (2026). Navigating the power of time in classroom practices: teachers’ and students’ perspectives. Educational Review, 78(1), 80–102. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2024.2438878
• Leinster, J., Mitsakis, F., & Genghi, A. (2025). Noise in the learning space: increasing awareness and breaking down barriers. Human Resource Development International, 29(3), 673-684. https://doi.org/10.1080/13678868.2025.2455206
• Letterlough, S. A. (2018). Impact of positive behavior interventions and supports on at-risk, Black Male students' academic performance [Doctoral dissertation]. Liberty University. https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/doctoral/1945/
• Lewis, C. S. (2020). Veteran teachers’ perceptions on the negative implications of classroom disruptive behavior and redirection strategies (Publication no. 287) [Doctoral dissertation, Abilene Christian University]. Electronic Theses and Dissertations.
• Li, S., Liu, X., Yang, Y., & Tripp, J. (2021). Effects of teacher professional development and science classroom learning environment on students' science achievement. Research in Science Education, 51(4), 1035-1055. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11165-020-09979-X
• Li, Y., Qiu, L., & Sun, B. (2019). Two ways peer interactions affect academic performance. ICCSE'19: Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Crowd Science and Engineering, 4, 90-94. https://doi.org/10.1145/3371238.3371253
• Li, Z., Wang, Q., & Wu, J. J. (2025). Effectiveness of Peer-assisted learning in medical education: A meta-analysis study. PLOS ONE, 20(9), e0329605. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0329605
• Lundahl, A. B. (2025). The impact of best practice classroom management strategies on the academic achievement and exclusionary discipline of middle school-aged students (Publication no: 134) [Master’s thesis, Concordia University]. CHESS: Graduate Teacher Eduction. https://digitalcommons.csp.edu/teacher-education_masters/134
• Marshall, T., Hoey, T., Rao, N., Taylor, J., George, P., Ghose, S. S., Cosgrove, J. & Patel, N. (2024). Reducing disruptive and distracting behaviors in the classroom: Assessing the evidence base. Psychiatric Services, 75(9), 831-940. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.20230543
• Martin, F., Long, S., Haywood, K., & Xie, K. (2025). Digital distractions in education: A systematic review of research on causes, consequences and prevention strategies. Educational Technology Research and Development, 73, 3423-3451. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-025-10550-6
• Masci, F. (2008). Time for time on task and quality instruction. Middle School Journal, 40(2), 33–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/00940771.2008.11461670
• Mealings, K., & Buchholz, J. M. (2024). The effect of classroom acoustics and noise on high school students’ listening, learning and well-being: A scoping review. Facilities, 42(5/6), 485–503. https://doi.org/10.1108/F-06-2023-0049
• Montiel, I., Mayoral, A. M., Pedreño, J. N., & Maiques, S. (2019). Acoustic comfort in learning spaces: Moving towards sustainable development goals. Sustainability, 11(13), 3573. https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11133573
• Moon, J., & Ke, F. (2020). Exploring the relationships among middle school students’ peer interactions, task efficiency, and engagement in game-based learning. Simulation & Gaming, 51(3), 310-335. https://doi.org/10.1177/1046878120907940
• Moss, N. E., & Moss-Racusin, L. (2021). Attention and concentration. In N. E. Moss & L. Moss-Racusin (Eds.), Practical guide to child and adolescent psychological testing (pp. 69–77). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-73515-9_11
• Mullis, I. V. S., Martin, M. O., Foy, P., Kelly, D. L., & Fishbein, B. (2020). TIMSS 2019 international results in mathematics and science. TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, Boston College. https://timssandpirls.bc.edu/timss2019/international-results/
• National Center for Education Statistics. (2024). About one-quarter of public schools reported that lack of focus or inattention from students had a severe negative impact on learning in 2023–24. https://nces.ed.gov/whatsnew/press_releases/7_18_2024.asp
• Nduwayezu, P., & Gacinya, J. (2025). Contribution of internal rules and regulations approaches to the academic performance in secondary schools in Gasabo District, Rwanda. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, 9(1), 1238-1251. https://doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.9010104
• Nye, S. B., & Williams, J. A. (2022). Teaching classroom expectations through cooperative learning activities. Strategies, 35(1), 3–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/08924562.2021.2000536
• Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD]. (2023). PISA 2022 results (Volume I): Are students ready to thrive in an uncertain world? https://doi.org/10.1787/53f23881-en
• Özdal, A. K., & Çağanağa, Ç. K. (2017). Evaluation of school and classroom rules in primary schools in accordance with teachers’ opinions in Northern Cyprus. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 13(8), 5445-5463. https://doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2017.00843a
• Pas, E. T., Cash, A. H., O’Brennan, L. M., Debnam, K., & Bradshaw, C. P. (2019). The influence of classroom climate and teacher management strategies on student engagement. Journal of School Psychology, 77, 97–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2019.10.001
• Patterson, E. (2018). Exploratory talk in the early years: analysing exploratory talk in collaborative group activities involving younger learners. Education 3-13, 46(3), 264–276. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004279.2016.1243141
• Pelo, P., Bonquin, S. , Dasco, A. , Gonhuran, J. , San Juan, E. & Teodoro, V. (2023). Impact Analysis of Students Misbehavior to Academic Performance. Psychology and Education: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 11(1), 1-9. http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8174445
• Reyes, J. (2024). Assessment of the impact of the implemented learning spaces on science achievement: Building resilience at General Tomas Mascardo National High School. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 21(03), 722–735. https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2024.21.3.0713
• Saad, A. (2020). Students’ Computational thinking skill through cooperative learning based on hands-on, inquiry-based, and student-centric learning approaches. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 8(1), 290–296. https://doi.org/10.13189/UJER.2020.080135
• Saloviita, T. (2013). Classroom management and loss of time at the lesson start: A preliminary study. European Journal of Educational Research, 2(4), 167–170. https://doi.org/10.12973/EU-JER.2.4.167
• Schmidt, S. J. (2020). Distracted learning: Big problem and golden opportunity. Journal of Food Science Education, 19(4), 278–291. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4329.12206
• Seitz, J., Loh, K. & Fels, J. (2024). Listening effort in children and adults in classroom noise. Scientific Reports, 14, 25200. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-76932-7
• Selman, S. B., & Dilworth-Bart, J. E. (2024). Routines and child development: A systematic review. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 16(2), 272-328. https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12549
• Sharmin, N. (2023). A skeletonian synopsis of class attention. International Journal for Multidisciplinary Research, 5(4), 4251. https://doi.org/10.36948/ijfmr.2023.v05i04.4251
• Sharpe, B. T., Trotter, M. G. & Hale, B. J. (2025). Sustaining student concentration: the effectiveness of micro-breaks in a classroom setting. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, 1589411. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1589411
• Simonsen, B., Freeman, J., Dooley, K., Maddock, E., Kern, L., & Myers, D. (2020). Classroom management practices to support academic engagement: A systematic review of the literature. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 22(4), 213–228. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300719893307
• Skiba, R. J., Ormiston, H. E., Martinez, S., & Cummings, J. A. (2016). Teaching the social curriculum: Classroom management as behavioral instruction. Theory into Practice, 55(2), 120–128. https://doi.org/10.1080/00405841.2016.1148990
• Skulmowski, A. (2023). Realistic details impact learners independently of split-attention effects. Cognitive Processing, 24(2), 187-198. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-022-01123-z
• Spicciarelli, G., Gheller, F., Celli, M., & Arfé, B. (2025). The effect of unintelligible speech noise on children’s verbal working memory performance. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, 1565112. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1565112
• Strom, P. S., Strom, R. D., Sindel-Arrington, T., & Rude, R. (2023). Student attention and distraction in community college. Journal of Educational and Developmental Psychology, 13(1), 41. https://doi.org/10.5539/jedp.v13n1p41
• Sun, R. C., & Shek, D. T. (2012). Student classroom misbehavior: an exploratory study based on teachers' perceptions. The Scientific World Journal, 2012, 208907. https://doi.org/10.1100/2012/208907
• Syakur, M. A., Khotimah, B. K., Rochman, E. M. S., & Satoto, B. D. (2018). Integration K-Means clustering method and Elbow method for identification of the best customer profile cluster. IOP Conference Series Materials Science and Engineering, 336, 012017. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/336/1/012017
• T’Sas, J., & Daems, F. (2024). Exploratory talk in times of globalisation and digitalisation: a narrative review. L1-Educational Studies in Language and Literature, 24(2), 1–38. https://doi.org/10.21248/l1esll.2024.24.2.609
• T’Sas, J., & De Mæyer, S. (2025). Learning outcomes of exploratory talk in collaborative activities. Pedagogische Studien, 102(2), 119–160. https://doi.org/10.59302/cj4khk48
• Tancredi, H. (2023). Investigating the impact of impairment and barriers experienced by students with language and/or attentional difficulties. Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties, 28(2), 173–194. https://doi.org/10.1080/19404158.2023.2285270
• Teig, N., Scherer, R., & Nilsen, T. (2018). More isn't always better: The curvilinear relationship between inquiry-based teaching and student achievement in science. Learning and Instruction, 56, 20-29. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.LEARNINSTRUC.2018.02.006
• Tong, Y., & Ding, Y. (2024). Productive classroom dialogue and its association with student achievement in knowledge-building environments. Language and Education, 39, 232-251. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500782.2024.2323207
• Vidić, T. (2022). Student classroom misbehavior: Teachers’ perspective. Croatian Journal of Education, 24(2), 4381. https://doi.org/10.15516/cje.v24i2.4381
• Villa, J., & Palaubsanon, M. L. (2025, June 5). Cebu lacks over 3,000 classrooms. The Freeman. https://www.philstar.com/the-freeman/cebu-news/2025/06/05/2448258/cebu-lacks-over-3000-classrooms
• Yang, F. (2023). A spatio-temporal attention-based method for detecting student classroom behaviors (2310.02523). arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2310.02523
• Zai, S. A. Y., Ajmal, F., & Nudrat, S. (2020). Science learning through interactive teaching method: an experimental study. Global Educational Studies Review, 5(4), 77-87. https://doi.org/10.31703/GESR.2020(V-IV).09
• Zhang, F., Bae, C. L., & Broda, M. (2021). Science Self-Concept, Relatedness, and Teaching Quality: A multilevel approach to examining factors that predict science achievement. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 19(8), 1655-1677. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10763-021-10165-2

License

This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.